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Money & Banking | New Economic Perspectives
Money & Banking
The following posts and textbook were written to provide alternative means to understand money and banking issues. While the post have been revised and edited somewhat relative to what was written in the spring, the textbook is a much better document. The textbook uses the posts but thoroughly edited and expanded them; everything is also formatted so that the material is easier to read.
Throughout the material, the concept of balance sheet is central and used to analyze all the topics presented. Not only are balance sheets relevant to understand financial mechanics, but also they force an inquirer to fit a logical argument into double-entry accounting rules. This is crucial because if that cannot be done there is an error in the logical argument.
The monetary and banking aspects and their relation to the macroeconomy are analyzed extensively in this material by relying on the literature that has been available for decades in non-mainstream journals, but that has been mostly ignored until recently. Gone is the money multiplier theory, gone in the financial intermediary theory of banks, gone is the idea that central bank control monetary aggregates, gone is the idea that finance is neutral in any range of time, and gone is the idea that nominal values are irrelevant. Preoccupations about monetary gains, solvency and liquidity are central to the dynamics of capitalism, and finance is not constrained by the amount of saving.
The posts dealing with monetary systems are also much more developed than a typical textbook and integrated with the rest of the material. As such, the "money" chapter, usually first in M&B texts, only comes much later in the form of three chapters, once balance-sheet mechanics and financial concepts, such as present value, have been well understood. In addition, the link between macroeconomic topics and banking theory is fully established to analyze issue of inflation, economic growth, financial crisis, and financial interlinkages.
- Part 1: Balance Sheet
- Part 2: Central bank balance sheet and immediate implications
- Part 3: Monetary Base, Reserves, and Central Bank's Balance Sheet
- Part 4: Monetary Policy Implementation
- Part 5: FAQs about central banking
- Part 6: Treasury and Central Bank Interactions
- Part 7: Leverage
- Part 8: The Private Banking Business
- Part 9: Banking regulation
- Part 10: Monetary Creation by Banks
- Part 11: Inflation
- Part 12: Economic Growth and the Financial System
- Part 13: Balance Sheet Interrelations and the Macroeconomy
- Part 14: Financial Crises
- Part 15: Monetary Systems
- Part 16: FAQs about Monetary Systems
- Part 17: History of Monetary Systems
Beginning with Part 18 below, these are new chapters for the upcoming book draft and at this time are not reflected in the ebook below.
- Part 18(A): Overview of the Financial System: A World of Promises
- Part 18(B): Overview of the Financial System: A World of Promises
- Part 19(A): Financial Institutions: An overview
- Part 19(B): Financial Institutions: An overview
- Part 19(C): Financial Institutions: An overview
- Part 20: Pricing Securities
- Part 21: The Interest Rate
Link to book is here or view embedded below.
マネー&バンキング|新しい経済学の視点
https://neweconomicperspectives.org/money-banking
マネーとバンキング
以下の投稿と教科書は、お金と銀行の問題を理解するための代替手段を提供するために書かれたものです。投稿は春に書かれたものに比べて多少修正・編集されていますが、教科書はより良い文書になっています。教科書は、投稿を使いながらも、徹底的に編集し、拡張しています。また、すべてが読みやすいようにフォーマットされています。
教材全体を通して、バランスシートの概念が中心となっており、提示されたすべてのトピックを分析するために使用されています。貸借対照表は、財務の仕組みを理解するのに役立つだけでなく、複式簿記のルールに論理的な議論を当てはめるよう、学習者に強いるものです。これができなければ、論理的な議論に誤りがあるため、非常に重要である。
この教材では、金融・銀行とマクロ経済との関係について、数十年前から非主流誌に掲載されながら、最近までほとんど無視されてきた文献に依拠して、広範な分析が行われている。貨幣乗数説は消え、銀行の金融仲介説も消え、中央銀行が貨幣総量をコントロールするという考えも消え、金融はどの時間範囲でも中立であるという考えも消え、名目価値は無関係であるという考えも消えた。貨幣的利益、支払能力、流動性に関する関心事は、資本主義のダイナミクスの中心であり、金融は貯蓄量に制約されることはない。
また、貨幣システムを扱う記事は、一般的な教科書よりもはるかに発展しており、他の教材と統合されている。そのため、M&Bのテキストでは通常最初に出てくる「お金」の章は、バランスシートの仕組みや現在価値などの金融の概念が十分に理解された後、3章という形でかなり遅れて出てくるだけである。また、インフレ、経済成長、金融危機、金融連動などの問題を分析するために、マクロ経済学的なトピックと銀行論との間のリンクを十分に確立しています。
パート1:バランスシート
第2部:中央銀行のバランスシートとその意味するところ
第3回:マネタリーベース、準備金、および中央銀行のバランスシート
Part 4: 金融政策の実施
Part 5: 中央銀行に関するFAQ
Part 6: 財務省および中央銀行の相互作用
Part 7: レバレッジ
パート8: プライベートバンキング・ビジネス
Part 9: 銀行規制
第10回:銀行による貨幣の創造
Part 11: インフレーション
Part 12: 経済成長と金融システム
Part 13: バランスシートの相互関係とマクロ経済
Part 14: 金融危機
Part 15: 貨幣システム
Part 16: 通貨制度に関するFAQ
第17回:通貨制度の歴史
下記Part18以降は、近刊の原稿のための新章であり、現時点では下記の電子書籍には反映されていません。
第18部(A): 金融システムの概要 約束された世界
第18部(B): 金融システムの概要。約束された世界
第19回(A) 金融機関の 概要
第19回(B) 金融機関 概要
第19部(C): 金融機関 概要
第20回:有価証券の価格決定
第21回:金利について
書籍へのリンクはこちらまたは下記よりご覧ください。
tymoignee The Financial System and The Economy
The Financial System and The Economy | PDF | Balance Sheet | Federal Reserve System
CHAPTER 15: MONETARY SYSTEMS
economy compared to what was desired by private economic units (which created deflationary forces). This created a dilemma:
The retirement of a large proportion of the circulating medium through annual taxation, regularly produced a stringency from which the legislature sought relief through postponement of the retirements. If the bills were not called in according to the terms of the acts of issue, public faith in them would lessen, if called in there would be a disturbance of the currency. On these points there was a permanent disagreement between the governor and the representatives. (Davis 1900, 21)
Private sector desired to hold bills for other purposes than the payment of tax liabilities, but, by draining most of the bills via taxes, the government prevented the domestic private sector from accumulating its desired dollar amount of bills. At the same time, taxes were at the foundation of that monetary system so they needed to be implemented as expected. Ultimately, the provincial government was unsure about how to proceed in terms of the dollar amount in bills to recall. Chapter 13 shows that some knowledge of national accounting helps to solve this dilemma: the size of the fiscal position (surplus, balanced, or deficit) should be left to be determined by what non‐ government sectors want to net save.
Summary of Major Points
1‐ A monetary instrument is a financial instrument. All financial instruments follow the same basic rule of finance: the creditworthiness of the issuer is at the foundation of the nominal value of those instruments. This creditworthiness is about the expected ability of the issuer to fulfill the promises he made.
2‐ A government promises to take back its monetary instrument at any time at face value and does not promise to pay any income. This means that the fair price of a government monetary instrument is face value. A government may also a promise a conversion of its monetary instrument into something else. The same logic applies to any other issuer.
3‐ Anybody can issue monetary instruments, i.e. zero‐coupon zero‐term securities; the point is to get them accepted. This can be done by convincing others of the credibility of the promise embedded in a monetary instrument.
4‐ The acceptance of current monetary instruments at par is mostly based on the ability of the issuers to make others indebted to them and to enforce that debt. Banks make others indebted to them when they create monetary instruments because they acquire a promissory note at the time of the bank credit. Governments impose tax liabilities on most of their citizens.
5‐ Monetary instruments are used mostly in transactions with other economic units than the issuer. They can be used as a medium of exchange, store of value, and means of payment. In such cases, the issuer of monetary instruments must run a deficit or the non‐government sector must increase its indebtedness toward the government sector.
6‐ While creditworthiness enables the creation of perfectly liquid financial instruments, this does not guarantee a stable purchasing power. A stable purchasing power is not a promise made by issuers of monetary instruments, but at long as relative price stability prevails this is not a problem for monetary system.
7‐ There are two means for a monetary instrument worthless. One, it circulates at par but its purchasing power is poor (hyperinflation). Two, prices of goods and services do not change but it circulate at a very deep discount (default by the issuer or problem with the financial infrastructure). 8‐ A net injection of monetary instrument requires that the issuer deficit spends or that others have a growing amount of debt owed to the issuer.
CHAPTER 17: HISTORY OF MONETARY SYSTEMS
The goal of this chapter does not to present a complete history of monetary systems but rather to illustrate the points and framework presented in the two previous chapters. The goal of this chapter is to show how to study the history of monetary system by taking a few examples. The financial mechanics at play are emphasized and linked to the socio‐politico‐economic context.
Massachusetts Bay colonies responded to the lack of currency by issuing bills of credit that "shall be accordingly accepted by the treasurer and receivers subordinate to him, in all publick payments, and for any stock at any time in the treasury" (Davis 1900, 10). The government spent by issuing the bills and levied a tax to allow bearers to redeem them. Initially, trust in the bill was low because of the political and financial risks:
When the government first offered these bills to creditors in place of coin, they were received with distrust. [...] their circulating value was at first impaired from twenty to thirty per cent. [...] Many people being afraid that the government would in half a year be so overturned as to convert their bills of credit altogether into waste paper, [...]. When, however, the complete recognition of the bills was effected by the new government and it was realized that no effort was being made to circulate more of them than was required to meet the immediate necessities of the situation, and further, that no attempt was made to postpone the period when they should be called in, they were accepted with confidence by the entire community [...] [and] they continued to circulate at par. (Davis 1900, 10, 15, 18, 20)
The population was unsure that the government would be willing or able to fulfill the promise to take back the bills at any times at par in tax payment. This lack of trust was compounded by the fact that, while the promise stipulated that bills could be returned at any time, in practice the tax levied to redeem the bills was initially implemented only once a year. Thus, when bills were issued initially, d was positive and bearers' expectations about the term to maturity (E(N)) compounded the discount applied to the bills.
1
The government asked for the help of Boston merchants who agreed to take the bills at a small discount in payments from the government. Ultimately, the bills circulated at par as the government retired the bills as expected in a timely fashion.
However, as explained in Chapter 15, tying the issuance of bills of credits to a specific tax created a dilemma. The private sector wanted to accumulate the bills but taxes prevent the accumulation of the desired dollar amount of bills. At the same time, taxes were at the foundation of the monetary system so they needed to be implemented as expected. Ultimately, the provincial government was unsure about how to proceed. One drastic method was to breach the promised term to maturity by postponing the implementation of the tax levy for several years. This was an effective default relative to the terms of the bills and a sure means to decrease the confidence in the bills and so their fair value (ibid., 108); "this fact alone would have caused them to depreciate, even if the amount then in circulation had been properly proportioned to the needs of the community" (Ibid.,

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