per cave how such a position could be made to square with their notions of a strong and constant tendency in human beings always to exceed the utmost limits of their subsistence. But while we maintain a constant sufficiency in nature to sustain all her creatures, we deny the fact that there is, generally speaking, that surplus; and, furthermore, we assert, and shall hereafter prove, that, were such the case, it would have an effect directly contrary to what they suppose —it would diminish, rather than increase, the natural prolificness of the species. In the mean time there is not an individual of that mighty mass of human beings by whose labours the world is sustained, who does not know and feel that he " works for his bread;" and both the language and its meaning will survive the sophism which they flatly contradict. (12) But if labour, as the condition of subsistence, be the catholic law of Nature, it is interesting to observe with what tenderness she administers it, tempering it with those feelings of compassion or affection which render it altogether an ordinance of mercy. It has been observed already, that this law extends to all animated life; but, in one respect, the human race stand pre-eminently distinguished from the brute creation, in that, when a fellow-being may be no longer capable of this labour, through age or sickness, or prevented from beneficially exercising it by human institutions or monopolies, the rest, by a little increased exertion, perform his share; and he enjoys, in some humble measure, the effect of that labour which he can no longer yield. Still the law is not broken, it is fulfilled vicariously. And the feeling of compassion is deeply implanted in our nature, to answer this particular purpose, and in ours alone: amongst all the inferior animals, such sufferers are left to expire unassisted, and, indeed, in many cases, are hurried out of existence. A remaining state of life, equally incapable of fulfilling, personally, the condition on which the means of subsistence are conferred, and one among human beings peculiarly helpless and protracted, that of infancy, is not only defended, but supplied by one of the strongest feelings of the human heart, parental affection;—a principle that not merely impels the parent to those necessary additional exertions of which the offspring is incapable, but, unsatisfied with producing a mere sufficiency for the object of its solicitude, prompts those additional and continued efforts which, in most cases, would not be endured from merely personal considerations. The increasing prosperity of mankind is fairly resolvable into this feeling, and many of their proverbial truths attest it. But still, it must be observed, that Nature, whether in the instance of our destitute brother, or our helpless child, never allows her law to be broken; she only permits, or, more properly, enjoins, that, in such cases, it should, as has been before observed, be obeyed vicariously. (13) But, in arguing on the precedence of production to population, Mr. Malthus descends into a minute examination of the subject, tracing it, as it should seem, to its source, in doing which I shall attempt to imitate him. In replying, in a subsequent edition, to one of his opponents, he says, "in the course of the "next twenty-four hours there will be about eight "hundred children born in England and Wales; and "I will venture to say that there are not ten out of "the whole number that come at the expected time, "for whom clothes are not prepared before their "birth1." We may venture, however,
(5) The stimulus created by population preceding production, when thus universally felt, is not only the cause of the production of sufficiency, but of the diffusion of increasing plenty. Almost every individual adding something beyond what is barely necessary to the feast of nature, the general abundance enlarges to profusion; and I would here add an idea, not unworthy of notice, that, as the division of labour has the effect of greatly increasing its total products, so in the economy of society the division and appropriation of food has a direct tendency to multiply plenty, by preventing waste. And of the many reasons why an increasing population is invariably accompanied by increasing plenty, this always constitutes one. In the mean time, as Mr. Malthus represents that even the virtues are like marketable commodities3, the supply of which will be regulated by the demand, (one of the most astounding maxims ever advanced in the science of ethics,) it is most singular that he should attempt to deny that the production of the necessaries of life should not be so governed. It is quite true, upon commercial and manufacturing principles, that more food will not be produced than is wanted; but that food, when wanted, 1 Covenant. Ways and Means, pp. 144, 145.
c.5 (8) The last idea unfolds a still truer view of the subject. That human food bears a full proportion to the numbers of human beings engaged in producing it, is not all; it is indeed very far from the whole truth. Combined labour produces results which individual exertion could never accomplish. As mankind, therefore, multiply in number, the products of their united industry would greatly exceed the amount of any mere arithmetical addition calculated on such an increase. Their several shares of sustenance consequently perpetually enlarge as their numbers accumulate, instead of being diminished in the manner and proportion which the table of the ratios under consideration pretends to demonstrate. This is true of any country advancing from barbarism to civilization, or, in other words, whose population is regularly increasing: I shall hereafter prove it true of our own in particular. It is, indeed, hardly necessary to argue that united exertion, directed by that enlarging intellect with which it is always accompanied, produces results, which, compared with those of individual and disconnected labour, exhibit a real geometrical ratio. Hence, in the mechanical arts, as well as in the pursuits of science, a man may achieve more in a day, thus aided, than a solitary, unassisted
per cave how such a position could be made to square with their notions of a strong and constant tendency in human beings always to exceed the utmost limits of their subsistence. But while we maintain a constant sufficiency in nature to sustain all her creatures, we deny the fact that there is, generally speaking, that surplus; and, furthermore, we assert, and shall hereafter prove, that, were such the case, it would have an effect directly contrary to what they suppose —it would diminish, rather than increase, the natural prolificness of the species. In the mean time there is not an individual of that mighty mass of human beings by whose labours the world is sustained, who does not know and feel that he " works for his bread;" and both the language and its meaning will survive the sophism which they flatly contradict. (12) But if labour, as the condition of subsistence, be the catholic law of Nature, it is interesting to observe with what tenderness she administers it, tempering it with those feelings of compassion or affection which render it altogether an ordinance of mercy. It has been observed already, that this law extends to all animated life; but, in one respect, the human race stand pre-eminently distinguished from the brute creation, in that, when a fellow-being may be no longer capable of this labour, through age or sickness, or prevented from beneficially exercising it by human institutions or monopolies, the rest, by a little increased exertion, perform his share; and he enjoys, in some humble measure, the effect of that labour which he can no longer yield. Still the law is not broken, it is fulfilled vicariously. And the feeling of compassion is deeply implanted in our nature, to answer this particular purpose, and in ours alone: amongst all the inferior animals, such sufferers are left to expire unassisted, and, indeed, in many cases, are hurried out of existence. A remaining state of life, equally incapable of fulfilling, personally, the condition on which the means of subsistence are conferred, and one among human beings peculiarly helpless and protracted, that of infancy, is not only defended, but supplied by one of the strongest feelings of the human heart, parental affection;—a principle that not merely impels the parent to those necessary additional exertions of which the offspring is incapable, but, unsatisfied with producing a mere sufficiency for the object of its solicitude, prompts those additional and continued efforts which, in most cases, would not be endured from merely personal considerations. The increasing prosperity of mankind is fairly resolvable into this feeling, and many of their proverbial truths attest it. But still, it must be observed, that Nature, whether in the instance of our destitute brother, or our helpless child, never allows her law to be broken; she only permits, or, more properly, enjoins, that, in such cases, it should, as has been before observed, be obeyed vicariously. (13) But, in arguing on the precedence of production to population, Mr. Malthus descends into a minute examination of the subject, tracing it, as it should seem, to its source, in doing which I shall attempt to imitate him. In replying, in a subsequent edition, to one of his opponents, he says, "in the course of the "next twenty-four hours there will be about eight "hundred children born in England and Wales; and "I will venture to say that there are not ten out of "the whole number that come at the expected time, "for whom clothes are not prepared before their "birth1." We may venture, however,
返信削除洞窟ごとに、人間は常に生存の限界を超えようとする強い一定の傾向があるという彼らの概念と、このような立場がどのようにして一致するのかを説明しました。しかし、私たちは、自然界にはすべての生物を維持するための一定の充足があると主張していますが、一般的には、そのような余剰があるという事実を否定しています。さらに、もしそのような場合には、彼らが考えていることとは正反対の効果をもたらすであろうと主張しています。その間、世界が労働によって支えられている人間の巨大な塊の中で、自分が「自分のパンのために働いている」ことを知り、感じない人は一人もいないだろう。(12) しかし、生存の条件としての労働が自然のカトリックの法則であるとすれば、自然がどのような優しさをもって労働を管理しているのかを観察するのは興味深いことである。この法則はすべての生身の生命にも及ぶことはすでに述べたが、ある点では、人間は野性的な創造物とは一線を画す存在である。それでも律法は破られるのではなく、代償的に成就する。劣った動物の中で、このような苦痛を受ける者は、何の助けも受けずに死を迎え、実際、多くの場合、急いでこの世から姿を消してしまう。生存の手段が与えられた条件を個人的に満たすことが同じようにできず、人間の中でも特に無力で長引いている幼児期の残りの生命の状態は、人間の心の最も強い感情の一つである親の愛情によって守られているだけでなく、供給されている。 -この原理は、子孫ができないような必要な追加的な努力を親に促すだけではなく、親の懇願の目的のための単なる充足を生み出すことに満足せず、ほとんどの場合、単なる個人的な配慮では耐えられないような追加的で継続的な努力を促します。人類の繁栄の増大は、このような感情をかなり解消しており、多くのことわざの真理がそれを証明している。しかし、それでもなお、観察しなければならないのは、自然は、私たちの貧乏な兄弟の例であれ、無力な子供の例であれ、自分の法律が破られることを決して許さないということである。(13) しかし、人口よりも生産の方が優先されると主張する際に、マルサス氏は、この問題の詳細な検討に入っていき、その源流をたどって、そのように思われるべきであるが、その際に、私は彼の真似をしようとする。マルサス氏は、後の版で、彼の反対者の一人への返答の中で、「次の24時間の間に、イングランドとウェールズでは約800人の子供が生まれるだろう」と述べています。しかし、私たちはあえて言うかもしれません。
返信削除247
返信削除終章 『資本論』におけるブルードン問題
得されているあらゆる富を平等主義的に分配することだけで十分なはずである」 (ebd., S. 123.)。
ここでは、プルードン理論が、「富の生産される歴史的諸条件」を理解せず、また「現在の生産諸条件」「諸階級の
敵対関係にもとづくいっさいのこと」を顧慮したい点において、その矛盾があばかれ批判されているのだが、注目す
べきは、ここの部分で、前述したいわゆるプルードンの集合力理論が、プルードンの独創ではなくて、一六年以前に、
サドラーが『人法則』(一八三〇年)のなかで、「結合しない個人の生産を超過する結合した個人の生産の剰余」(ebd.
S. 116.) としてのべていたと、指摘されていることである。また「計算の誤り」の理論も、検討してみると「純計算
上の簡単な誤謬」を含むものであることが暴露されているのである。ここにおいて、マルクスが、なぜ、『資本論』
第一巻第四篇第+一章「協業」の部分で、プルードンにふれなかったかの謎がとけるのである。
さきに、私は、マルクスによる集合力理論の「見落とし」(本章三の1をみよ)とのべていたが、もっと、正確にい
えば、「見落とし」ではなくて、マルクスは、集合力理論も、「計算の誤り」の理論も、すでに、『哲学の貧困』段階
で検討ずみであった。マルクスにとって「集合力」理論とは、単に個別労働に対する結合労働の優位の理論を意味す
るだけであって、資本主義的協業の特徴づけとはとらえられず、サドラー理論のやき直しくらいにしか考えられなか
ったのである。「計算の誤り」の理論も、「純計算上の簡単な誤謬」を含んだいわゆる「累進的計算」としか、とらえ
られなかったから、これが、賃金の問題として資本主義的協業の部分に位置づけられることはなかったのである。
背後に、諸階級の敵対関係を強調し、この観点からプルードン批判をしていた当時のマルクスの理論段階と、プル
ードンに対比して、リカードの価値論の科学性を擁護していたマルクス自身の理論研究の制約があったことは否めな
い。それゆえ『資本論』では集合力および計算の誤りの理論ははぶかれて、「剰余生産物の提供が人間労働の生まれ
つきの性質であるかのように思われる」見解の一例として、プルードンが注で指摘されるに留まっている。ここでは
剰余生産物を、人間労働の生まれつきの神秘な性質に還元しようとするプルードン理論の危険な役割が警告されてい
るといえよう。また、リカードにっいても、続く文章の一節で、「リカードは剰余価値の源泉のことは少しも気にか
結合しない個人の生産を超過する結合した個人の生産の剰余
返信削除Surplus of combined individual production in excess of uncombined individual production.
(5) The stimulus created by population preceding production, when thus universally felt, is not only the cause of the production of sufficiency, but of the diffusion of increasing plenty. Almost every individual adding something beyond what is barely necessary to the feast of nature, the general abundance enlarges to profusion; and I would here add an idea, not unworthy of notice, that, as the division of labour has the effect of greatly increasing its total products, so in the economy of society the division and appropriation of food has a direct tendency to multiply plenty, by preventing waste. And of the many reasons why an increasing population is invariably accompanied by increasing plenty, this always constitutes one. In the mean time, as Mr. Malthus represents that even the virtues are like marketable commodities3, the supply of which will be regulated by the demand, (one of the most astounding maxims ever advanced in the science of ethics,) it is most singular that he should attempt to deny that the production of the necessaries of life should not be so governed. It is quite true, upon commercial and manufacturing principles, that more food will not be produced than is wanted; but that food, when wanted, 1 Covenant. Ways and Means, pp. 144, 145.
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返信削除(5) 生産に先立つ人口によってもたらされる刺激は、このように普遍的に感じられるときには、充足の生産の原因となるだけでなく、増加する豊富さの拡散の原因となる。ほとんどすべての個人が、自然の饗宴にかろうじて必要なものを超えて何かを加えると、一般的な豊かさは大量に拡大していく。そして、人口の増加が常に豊富さの増加を伴う多くの理由のうち、これは常に一つを構成している。その間に、マルサス氏は、美徳でさえも市場性のある商品3 のようなものであり、その供給は需要によって調節されると述べています（倫理学の科学においてこれまでに最も驚異的な最大公約数の一つ）が、彼が生活必需品の生産がそう支配されるべきではないことを否定しようとするのは最も異例です。商業的・製造的な原則に基づけば、必要以上に多くの食糧が生産されないことは全く真実であるが、食糧が必要とされるときには、その食糧は、1 コヴェナント. Ways and Means, pp.144, 145.
c.5
返信削除(8) The last idea unfolds a still truer view of the subject. That human food bears a full proportion to the numbers of human beings engaged in producing it, is not all; it is indeed very far from the whole truth. Combined labour produces results which individual exertion could never accomplish. As mankind, therefore, multiply in number, the products of their united industry would greatly exceed the amount of any mere arithmetical addition calculated on such an increase. Their several shares of sustenance consequently perpetually enlarge as their numbers accumulate, instead of being diminished in the manner and proportion which the table of the ratios under consideration pretends to demonstrate. This is true of any country advancing from barbarism to civilization, or, in other words, whose population is regularly increasing: I shall hereafter prove it true of our own in particular. It is, indeed, hardly necessary to argue that united exertion, directed by that enlarging intellect with which it is always accompanied, produces results, which, compared with those of individual and disconnected labour, exhibit a real geometrical ratio. Hence, in the mechanical arts, as well as in the pursuits of science, a man may achieve more in a day, thus aided, than a solitary, unassisted
(8) 最後のアイデアは、この問題についてより真実味のある見解を明らかにするものである。人間の食糧は、それを生産するために従事する人間の数に完全に比例しているということは、すべてではない。協同労働は、個人の努力では決して達成できないような結果を生み出すのである。したがって、人類が数を増やせば、その団結した産業の成果は、そのような増加に基づいて計算された単なる算術的な足し算の量をはるかに超えることになる。その結果、数が増えれば増えるほど、彼らのいくつかの糧の分け前は恒常的に拡大していくのであって、現在検討中の比率の表が示すような方法や割合では減少しないのである。これは、野蛮から文明へと発展している国、言い換えれば、人口が定期的に増加している国に当てはまる。これは、特にわが国の場合に当てはまることを、これから証明しよう。実際には、常にそれに付随する拡大した知性によって指示された団結した努力が、個人の労働と切り離された労働とを比較して、真の幾何学的比率を示す結果を生み出すことを論じるのは、ほとんど必要ない。したがって、機械工学においても、科学の追求においても、一人の人間は、このようにして、一日のうちに、一人で何の助けも受けずに、一人で作業をするよりも多くのことを達成することができる。
返信削除Combined labour produces results which individual exertion could never accomplish.
返信削除p.83
返信削除Combined labour produces results which individual exertion could never accomplish.
https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=wQQAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Michael+Thomas+Sadler+;+The+Law+of+Population+:&hl=ja&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGrt3M9Y_sAhWbA4gKHQKvD8UQ6AEwAHoECAEQAQ#v=onepage&q=Combined%20labour%20produces%20results%20which%20individual%20exertion%20could%20never%20accomplish.%20&f=false