レイ2022#7
https://love-and-theft-2014.blogspot.com/2022/09/wray-2022-7.html @
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CONTENTS
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Acknowledgments
Preface
Notes
An Introduction to Modern Money Theory
A. MMT's Shocking Conclusions
B. Themes to Be Covered
1 What Is Money?
MAKING MONEY WORK FOR US: HOW MMT CAN SAVE A...
A. Money Is What Money Does?
B. I Owe You, You Owe Me
C. Redemption
D. Record-Keeping in Money
E. The Nature of Money
F. Conclusion
Notes
2 Where Does Money Come From?
A. Money Creation Simplified: The State's Money
B. How the Central Bank Creates "Money"
C. How Modern Treasuries Spend through their Central Banks
D. How Are Taxes Paid?
E. Do Treasury Checks Bounce due to Insufficient Funds?
F. How Banks Create Money
G. Why Does Government Sell Bonds?
Notes
3 Can We Have Too Much Money?
A. What Determines the Value of the Currency?
B. Real-World Constraints
C. Can We Ever Have Too Much Money?
D. Private Money Creation and Financial Instability
E. Conclusions
Notes
4 Balances Balance
A. Time, Money, and Balance
B. Debt Cancellation and the Soddy Principle
C. Government Debt and Balance
D. Money and Sovereign Power
E. Sovereignty and Exchange Rates
F. Conclusion: A World Out of Balance
Notes
5 Life Is Full of Trade-Offs
A. Private Trade-Offs
B. Public Trade-Offs
C. Is Policy a Zero-Sum Game?
D. What is MMT's View on All This?
E. Why We Should Take Advantage of the Free Lunches
F. The Inflation-Unemployment Trade-off
Notes
6 The MMT Alternative Framework for Policy
A. Framing
B. MMT's Framework on Money
C. The MMT View of Taxes
D. MMT's Approach to Spending
E. MMT's Alternative Framing on Inflation
F. MMT's View of Government Deficits
G. Why Is Money So Difficult to Discuss?
Notes
7 MMT and Policy
A. What Is MMT's State of Play in Policy-Making Circles?
B. MMT's Approach and Pay-Fors
C. MMT's Policy Agenda
D. Conclusion
Notes
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 4
Figure 1 Government and nongovernment sector balances (% of GDP) 1960–2020
Figure 2 Government surpluses mean private deficits
#7
Hyman Minsky used to ask students "what is the minimum wage in the US?" A student would raise her hand and say $3.35 an hour (the legal minimum wage in the early 1980s). He'd respond: "No it isn't. If you cannot find a job, you get zero."
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https://twitter.com/monopole0001/status/1299968226114166784?s=21
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https://twitter.com/franjisneuvire/status/1569187080546451459?s=21
National Jobs for All Network
Education and Action: Good Jobs for All & Economic Justice
June Zaccone 2018
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Job guarantee
The final policy is by far the most important for MMT: a universal job guarantee that would provide jobs at decent pay (with benefits) for anyone who wants to work. Above, we have briefly discussed the MMT view that employment is a fundamental right, particularly in a society that believes that "he who does not work, neither shall he eat." Capitalism places a high value on income payments going to those who contribute to the production process. However, it has long entertained a false presumption that the "market" can provide jobs to all who want them. This is not, and never has been, true. Under capitalism, firms hire only the number of workers they think they need to produce the amount of output that can be sold for profit. In other words, capitalists hire workers only if they think they can profit from the employment. This always leaves a substantial part of the potential labor force unemployed. If that were not bad enough, those left behind are those who face the most discrimination – by gender, by race, by age, by ethnic origin, and by any other distinguishing characteristics that can be discriminated against. Discrimination is practiced and perpetuated because it is profitable. By discriminating against a group, employers can not only pay them less, but can also use them to keep the wages of others lower. Such discrimination is built into the nature of capitalism – it is a "divide and rule" strategy that pits worker against worker. The threat that "the other" (the group facing discrimination because of their gender, race, etc.) might take your job keeps you, too, subservient. This threat is as old as capitalism itself. A universal job guarantee (JG) that offers equal access, equal pay, and equal treatment can counter such discrimination. The program's wage and its benefits and working conditions will set the standard that all other employers must meet. It "levels up" by "hiring off the bottom." It takes workers "as they are," provides them with jobs and decent treatment, and forces other employers to compete.
雇用の保証
最後の政策は、MMTにとって最も重要なものである。それは、働きたい人には誰でも適正な賃金(手当付き)で仕事を提供する、普遍的な雇用保証である。上述では、雇用は基本的な権利であるというMMTの考え方を簡単に説明した。特に、「働かざる者、食うべからず」という社会では、雇用は基本的な権利であると考えられている。資本主義は、生産過程に貢献した者に所得が支払われることに高い価値を置いている。しかし、資本主義は長い間、「市場」が希望するすべての人に仕事を与えることができるという誤った推定を受け入れてきた。これは事実ではないし、これまでもそうであった。資本主義のもとでは、企業は、利益を得るために販売できる量の生産物を作るために必要だと思う数の労働者だけを雇う。言い換えれば、資本家は、雇用から利益を得られると考える場合にのみ、労働者を雇うのである。このため、潜在的な労働力のかなりの部分が常に失業することになる。さらに、性別、人種、年齢、民族、その他、差別されうるあらゆる特徴によって、最も差別を受ける人々が取り残されるのである。差別が行われ、永続するのは、それが利益をもたらすからである。あるグループを差別することによって、雇用主は彼らの賃金を下げることができるだけでなく、彼らを利用して他の人々の賃金を低く抑えることができるのである。このような差別は、資本主義の本質に組み込まれている。それは、労働者と労働者を対立させる「分割統治」戦略である。他者」(性別や人種などの理由で差別に直面しているグループ)があなたの仕事を奪うかもしれないという脅威が、あなたをも従属させるのである。この脅威は、資本主義そのものと同じくらい古いものである。平等なアクセス、平等な賃金、平等な待遇を提供する普遍的な雇用保証(JG)は、このような差別に対抗することができます。このプログラムの賃金とその手当、労働条件は、他のすべての雇用主が満たさなければならない基準を設定することになる。このプログラムは、「底辺からの雇用」によって「レベルアップ」する。労働者を「ありのまま」に受け入れ、仕事と適切な待遇を提供し、他の雇用者に競争を強いるのです。
But, also importantly from the MMT view, the JG "anchors" the currency. We know that taxes "drive the currency," creating a demand for it to pay taxes to the currency's issuer. But that does not determine the currency's value. On the margin, the currency's value is determined by what you must do to obtain it. If you need to work an hour to obtain $15, that establishes the value: one hour equals $15. Hyman Minsky used to ask students "what is the minimum wage in the US?" A student would raise her hand and say $3.35 an hour (the legal minimum wage in the early 1980s). He'd respond: "No it isn't. If you cannot find a job, you get zero." Then he'd go on to say that if there was a JG (he called it "employer of last resort," a term left over from the Roosevelt administration), that would establish an "effective minimum wage" at whatever the program paid. And then he'd talk about the virtues of the New Deal's jobs programs, that provided jobs to millions of formerly unemployed workers. The point is this: the JG establishes the value of an hour of labor. And helps to keep it stable through time. If wages start to rise outside the JG program, employers can always recruit out of the JG program at a wage slightly above the program wage. If it pays, for example, $15 per hour, then private employers can hire labor out of the program at, say, $15.25 an hour. This helps to dampen wage and price inflation as the economy grows. The JG "anchors" the currency – by supplying labor when the private sector needs it, and by absorbing labor when the private sector lays off workers. That ensures wages do not fall below $15 an hour (in our example), no matter how bad a recession becomes. By hiring the unemployed, the program prevents a recession from going too deep – by maintaining wages and incomes. Economists call that an automatic stabilizer, and the JG is a strong one: it maintains employment, wages, income, prices, and consumption. Government spending on the program is automatically countercyclical, rising in a slump (workers flow into the program) and falling in a boom (workers are recruited by private employers). Exactly what we want, and automatic – it doesn't require discretionary action by politicians, which could take too long. And note, given our understanding of sovereign government finances, there is no worry about "how to pay for it" – Uncle Sam can afford it. MMT economists have worked for a quarter century building on the ideas of Hyman Minsky to develop proposals to implement a JG. They have worked out all the details – what kinds of projects, how much to pay workers and what benefits to include, who will run the program and how it will be administered, how big it is likely to be, and how effective it will be at maintaining the value of the currency and at fighting inflation. There is no need to recount all of this, as Pavlina Tcherneva has nicely summarized most of the findings in her book.14 Like the rest of MMT, the JG has easily withstood all the critiques that have been raised. There are a number of proposals that have already been brought to Congress, and a number of groups devoted to fighting for the JG, among which we highly recommend the National Jobs For All Network.15 People often ask: if we "implement" MMT, how can we be sure more government spending doesn't lead to inflation? Our answers are: MMT is not something you implement – it is a description of how sovereign government really spends. It concludes that affordability is not a problem. Still, how much you spend, and what you spend on, do matter. We prefer targeted spending – to achieve the public purpose. And one of the most important public purposes is to ensure that anyone who wants to work can get a job. The main spending policy we recommend is the JG. It ensures full employment – providing a job to anyone who wants one. That is as targeted as you can get. Further, it is spending that cannot cause inflation. It sets a "floor price" to labor, with the wage it pays anchoring wages. As per our example above: 1 hour = $15. Once everyone gets a job, government spending stops growing. If the economy picks up, workers are pulled out of the program and government spending falls. Automatically. It is an automatic stabilizer – and automatic inflation fighter. It is a "fixed price/floating quantity model" (see chapter 3) and as such cannot cause inflation. To be sure, the JG is not the only government program. Liberals will want lots of others. Conservatives will want different ones, and maybe less government. MMT will let them negotiate all of that with the democratic process choosing the final mix. Whatever that mix is, the JG will ensure full employment and will exert a stabilizing force on prices and the economy as a whole.
D. Conclusion
The monetary system is a wonderful creation. It allows for individual choice while giving government access to resources needed to allow it to work for us to achieve a just society. The monetary system spurs entrepreneurial initiative. It finances, organizes, and distributes much of the nation's output. It is one of the primary mechanisms used by government to accomplish the public purpose. There could be a better way to organize production and distribution. There could be a better way to allocate resources between public and private. There could be a better way to induce the private sector to serve not only its own interest but also the public interest. But if so, we have not yet seen it.
しかし、MMTの観点からは、JGが通貨を「固定」していることも重要である。税金が「通貨を動かす」ことは分かっている。通貨の発行者に税金を支払うために、通貨に対する需要が生まれるのだ。しかし、それだけでは通貨の価値は決まらない。それどころか、通貨の価値は、それを手に入れるために何をしなければならないかによって決まる。15ドルを手に入れるために1時間働けば、1時間=15ドルというように、その価値が決まる。ハイマン・ミンスキーは、学生に "アメリカの最低賃金はいくらですか?"とよく聞いていた。学生が手を挙げて、時給3.35ドル(1980年代初頭の法定最低賃金)と答えるのです。彼はこう答えるだろう。「いいえ、そうではありません。もし仕事が見つからなければ、給料はゼロです」。そして、もしJG(ルーズベルト政権の名残で「最後の砦の雇用主」と呼ばれる)があれば、そのプログラムが支払う金額で「実質的な最低賃金」が確立されると言うのです。そして、何百万人もの失業者に仕事を提供したニューディール政策がいかに優れていたかを語るのである。重要なのは、JGは1時間の労働の価値を定めるものであるということだ。そして、その価値を一定に保つことができる。もし、JGプログラムの外で賃金が上昇し始めたら、雇用主はいつでもJGプログラムの賃金より少し高い賃金でJGプログラムから採用することができる。例えば、時給15ドルであれば、民間雇用主は、例えば、時給15.25ドルでJGプログラムの外に労働者を雇い入れることができる。これは、経済が成長するにつれて賃金や物価の上昇を抑制するのに役立つ。JGは通貨を「固定」する。民間企業が労働力を必要とするときには供給し、民間企業が労働者を解雇するときにはそれを吸収するのである。そのため、どんなに不況になっても、賃金が時給15ドル以下になることはない(この例では)。失業者を雇用することで、賃金と所得を維持し、不況が深刻化するのを防ぐことができる。経済学者はこれを自動安定装置と呼ぶが、JGは強力なものだ。このプログラムに対する政府の支出は自動的に反循環的になり、不況時には増加し(労働者はプログラムに流れ込む)、好況時には減少する(労働者は民間の雇用主によって採用される)。まさに我々が望んでいることであり、自動的である。政治家による裁量的な行動を必要としないため、時間がかかりすぎる可能性があるのだ。また、政府の財政を理解していれば、「どうやって支払うか」という心配は無用で、アンクルサムにはその余裕がある。MMTエコノミストは、ハイマン・ミンスキーのアイデアを基に、四半世紀にわたってJGを実現するための提案を進めてきた。どのような事業を行うか、労働者にどれくらいの報酬を支払うか、どのような給付を含めるか、誰がどのようにプログラムを運営するか、どれくらいの規模になりそうか、通貨価値の維持やインフレ対策にどれくらいの効果があるかなど、あらゆる細部を洗い出してきたのである。この点については、パブリナ・チェルネヴァ(Pavlina Tcherneva)がその著書の中でほとんどを見事に要約しているので、すべてを説明する必要はないだろう14。14 他の MMT と同様、JG はこれまで提起されたあらゆる批判に容易に耐えてきた。すでに議会に提出された多くの提案や、JG のために闘う多くのグループがあり、その中でも National Jobs For All Network を強く推奨する15。という質問がある。MMTは実施するものではなく、主権者である政府が実際にどのように支出するかを説明するものである。その結果、物価の安さは問題ではないと結論づけられる。しかし、いくら使うか、何に使うかは重要です。私たちは、公共的な目的を達成するために、的を絞った支出を行うことを望んでいます。そして、最も重要な公共目的のひとつは、働きたい人が誰でも仕事に就けるようにすることです。私たちが推奨する主な支出政策は、JGです。これは完全雇用を保証するもので、働きたい人には誰でも仕事を与えることができます。これは、限りなく的を射たものである。さらに、インフレを引き起こさないような支出です。JGは労働に「下限価格」を設定し、支払う賃金は賃金を固定化する。上の例のように。1時間=15ドル。誰もが仕事にありつけたら、政府の支出は伸びなくなる。景気が良くなれば、労働者はプログラムから引き抜かれ、政府支出は減少する。自動的に。これは自動的な安定装置であり、自動的なインフレ対策でもある。これは「固定価格・変動数量モデル」(第3章参照)であり、そのためインフレを引き起こすことはできない。確かに、JGは唯一の政府プログラムではない。リベラル派は他にもいろいろなものを欲しがるだろう。保守派は別のものを望むだろうし、もしかしたら政府の数を減らすかもしれない。MMTは、民主的なプロセスで最終的な組み合わせを選択することで、そのすべてを交渉できるようにする。その組み合わせが何であれ、日本政府は完全雇用を保証し、物価と経済全体に安定的な力を発揮する。
D. 結論
通貨制度は素晴らしい創造物である。個人の選択を可能にする一方で、公正な社会を実現するために必要な資源へのアクセスを政府に与えている。通貨制度は、起業家のイニシアチブを促進する。通貨制度は、国家の生産物の多くに資金を供給し、組織し、分配する。通貨制度は、政府が公共の目的を達成するために使用する主要なメカニズムの1つである。生産と分配を組織化する、より良い方法があるはずだ。公共と民間の間で資源を配分するもっと良い方法があるはずだ。民間部門が自らの利益だけでなく、公共の利益にも貢献するように誘導するもっと良い方法があるはずだ。しかし、もしそうだとしたら、私たちはまだそれを見ていないのです。
Until that better system comes along, we need a progressive meme for the monetary system we’ve got. Progressives have been in retreat for the past half century. Yes, they’ve won some battles – mostly in the social sphere. They’ve lost almost all economic battles, however. At least some of those losses are due to adoption of the wrong framing of money. We need to recognize that the monetary system is important. It is not merely – or even mainly – used to lubricate exchange of goods and services. From its origins, the monetary system has played an important role in pursuit of the public interest. It also is used in pursuit of the private interest. And it is – especially in recent years – used by an elite of Wall Street insiders in their own selfish interests. To be sure, the monetary system cannot and should not do everything. While capitalism tends to extend the monetary sphere into an ever-larger proportion of our social provisioning processes (“the economy”), that can be carried much too far. There are areas that need to be kept off limits, including many functions within the purview of government. We pay our judges and lawyers but we do not want them to sell judgments to the highest bidder. We let our candidates for higher office accept campaign funds, but we do not want candidates to sell themselves to contributors. As we push progressive memes we acknowledge that we deserve a better government than we’ve got – and better than we’ve had even when at its best. Many of those in government serve private interests, not the public interest. They’ve been bought and paid for. The monetary system provides the power to do good, and the power to do bad is the other side of the coin. Still, even a largely bought and incompetent government (remember “Heckuva Job Brownie,” aka Michael Brown in charge of President Bush’s rescue of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina?) is better than no government. Even the highly suspect bailout of Wall Street in the aftermath of the GFC was better than no policy response at all. A better government can serve us better (compare the Obama administration’s handling of Hurricane Sandy to Bush’s handling of Katrina). Perfection is hard to achieve, but not necessary to attain some success. Good is not the enemy of perfection. As we’ve discussed, modern cognitive science teaches that we think through the use of stories that integrate words and audio-visual-sensory memories. Stories engage the reader and trigger emotional responses. Coherent narratives are easier to remember. While we might think of stories as little more than entertainment, in fact, stories help us to process, organize, and better understand the information flowing from our five senses. Brian Boyd goes further, focusing on the evolutionary advantages that story-telling has had, arguing that “we cannot, in fact, live without stories, because they are an adaptation that has enabled our success as a species. We enjoy them, they bring us together and foster cooperation and sharing of values, they encourage attention and empathy.”16
We’ve told a different money story in this book to reinforce the main ideas. After all, the way that we will convince others is through story-telling. While lots of economists like to parade around with their complex math, their models simply add a patina of sophistication to the simple stories they tell. Stories win the debates, not math.
And we’ve got the better stories.
Keynes once said he hoped for the day when economists might be thought as useful as dentists. That’s a two-edged sword. It requires first that economists actually become, as Keynes said, as humble and as competent at their craft as dentists are at theirs. Unfortunately, that day still resides beyond reach. Economists are rarely humble and often precisely wrong. Their errors do not build the confidence that Keynes hoped for. Further, economists are masters at putting simple ideas into mathematically complex models that no one can understand. This is intentional obfuscation. We hope that this book can make a positive contribution toward Keynes’s goal of raising the reputation of the economics profession – perhaps at least part way to the esteem in which dentistry is held.
より良いシステムが登場するまでは、現在の貨幣システムに対する進歩的なミームが必要である。進歩的な人々は、過去半世紀の間、後退してきた。確かに、彼らはいくつかの戦い-主に社会的な領域で-に勝った。しかし、ほとんどすべての経済的な戦いに敗れてきた。その敗因の少なくとも一部は、貨幣について間違った枠組みを採用したことにある。私たちは、通貨制度が重要であることを認識する必要がある。貨幣制度は、単に、あるいは、主に、財やサービスの交換の潤滑油として使われているのではない。通貨制度は、その起源から、公共の利益を追求する上で重要な役割を担ってきた。また、私的な利益を追求するためにも利用されている。そして、特に近年では、ウォール街のインサイダーのエリートが、自分たちの利己的な利益のために使っている。確かに、通貨制度はすべてを行うことはできないし、行うべきでもない。資本主義は、通貨圏を社会的供給プロセス(「経済」)のますます大きな割合に拡大する傾向があるが、それはあまりに行き過ぎであろう。政府の権限の範囲内にある多くの機能を含め、制限されないようにする必要がある領域がある。私たちは裁判官や弁護士に報酬を支払っているが、彼らが最高入札者に判決を売ることは望んでいない。私たちは公職の候補者に選挙資金を受け取らせるが、候補者が寄付者に自らを売り渡すことを望まない。私たちは進歩的なミームを押し進めながら、私たちが今よりも良い政府を持つに値することを認めている-そして最高の状態であっても、今よりも良い政府を持つに値する。政府関係者の多くは、公共の利益ではなく、私的な利益に奉仕している。彼らは買収され、お金をもらっている。貨幣制度は善を行う力を提供し、悪を行う力はコインの裏側である。それでも、大きく買収された無能な政府(ハリケーン・カトリーナの後、ブッシュ大統領のニューオリンズ救援を担当したマイケル・ブラウンこと「Heckuva Job Brownie」を覚えているだろうか)でさえ、政府がないよりはましである。金融危機の後のウォール街の救済でさえ、何の政策対応もしないよりはましだった。より良い政府は、より良いサービスを提供できる(オバマ政権のハリケーン「サンディ」への対処とブッシュ政権の「カトリーナ」への対処を比べてみてほしい)。完璧を目指すのは難しいが、ある程度の成功を収めるには必要ない。善は完璧の敵ではない。これまで述べてきたように、現代の認知科学は、私たちが言葉と視聴覚・感覚的記憶を統合した物語を使って思考していることを教えている。ストーリーは読み手を惹きつけ、感情的な反応を引き起こす。首尾一貫したストーリーは記憶に残りやすい。ストーリーは単なる娯楽と思われがちですが、実は、五感から流れてくる情報を処理し、整理し、よりよく理解するために役立っているのです。ブライアン・ボイドはさらに、物語を語ることが進化上有利であったことに着目し、「実際、私たちは物語なしでは生きていけない。私たちは物語を楽しみ、物語が私たちを結びつけ、協力や価値観の共有を促し、注意や共感を促すのです」16
本書では、主旨を補強するために別のお金の話をしました。結局のところ、私たちが他人を説得する方法は、物語を語ることなのです。多くの経済学者が複雑な数学を駆使してパレードするのを好むが、彼らのモデルは単純なストーリーに洗練された装飾を加えるだけである。
議論に勝つのは数学ではなく、ストーリーです。
そして、私たちはより良い物語を持っている。ケインズはかつて、経済学者が歯医者と同じように役に立つと思われる日を望んでいると言った。これは両刃の剣です。まず、ケインズが言ったように、経済学者が歯医者のように謙虚になり、その技術において有能になることが必要である。残念ながら、その日はまだ手の届かないところにある。経済学者が謙虚であることは稀であり、しばしば正確に間違っている。彼らの間違いは、ケインズが期待したような信頼を築き上げることはない。さらに、経済学者は単純な考えを誰にも理解できない数学的に複雑なモデルに落とし込む名人である。これは意図的な難解化である。本書が、経済学の専門家の評価を高めるというケインズの目標に積極的に貢献することを期待したい。少なくとも、歯学が尊敬されているのと同じように。
12. See Nersisyan and Wray, “Can Biden Build Back Better?”
13. Yeva Nersisyan and L. Randall Wray, “Can We Afford the Green New Deal?” Levy Institute Public Policy Brief No. 148, Annandale-on-Hudson, NY: Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2020.
14. Pavlina Tcherneva, The Case for a Job Guarantee, Polity, Cambridge, 2020. 15. National Jobs For All Network. https://njfac.org.
16. Sue Bond, “Review – On the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition, and Fiction by Brian Boyd (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009),” Metapsychology, vol. 13, no. 41 (October 6, 2009). http://metapsychology.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=book&id=5171.
https://metapsychology.net/index.php/book-review/on-the-origin-of-stories/ ★
Economic Possibilities
Meanwhile there will be no harm in making mild preparations for our destiny, in encouraging, and experimenting in, the arts of life as well as the activities of purpose. But, chiefly, do not let us overestimate the importance of the economic problem, or sacrifice to its supposed necessities other matters of greater and more permanent significance. It should be a matter for specialists–like dentistry. If economists could manage to get themselves thought of as humble, competent people, on a level with dentists, that would be splendid! (ib., p. 332).
(CW IX, p. 332),
第5編 未来
ことになろう。実際、それはすでに始まっている。事態の推移は、経済的必要の問題から実際に解放された人々の階
級や集団が次第に大きくなるというだけのことであろう。 決定的な違いが実現されることになるのは、隣人に対する
各人の義務の本質が一変するほどこの条件が一般化したときであろう。なぜならば、経済的な目的意識が自分自身に
とっては合理的でなくなった後においても、他の人にとっては依然として合理的でありつづけるだろうからである。
経済的至福という目的地に到達するまでの足どりは、四つのものによって決定されることになろう――すなわち、
人口の調整能力、戦争および内訌を回避する決意、当然科学の仕事であるようなさまざまな問題の管理を科学に委ね
ようという自発性、生産と消費の差額によって決定される蓄積率、以上の四つである。このうち最後のものは、他の
三つのものが与えられれば、おのずと容易に解決される。
一方、自分たちの運命の準備をおだやかに進め、目的意識的な活動と同じように生活の技術も助長し、その実験を
試みることは、何らの害ももたらさないであろう。
しかし何よりもまず、経済問題の重要度を過大に評価したり、経済問題で仮定されているいろいろな必要のため
に、もっと大きく、より持続的な重要性をもった他の諸問題を犠牲にしたりしてはならない。それは、歯科医術と同
じように、専門家たちの問題であるべきなのだ。経済学者が歯科医たちと同じ位置にとどまって、控えめで有能な人
とみなされるようになることができたとすれば、それはなんとすばらしいことであろうか!
332
第9巻 説得論集
On the Origin of Stories
Brian Boyd’s aim in his thorough, and thoroughly frustrating, On the Origin of Stories, is to explore and explain why humans tell stories. He wants to understand how and why an activity that, on the surface, may seem unrelated to our survival as a species, does in fact have an evolutionary basis. Following on from this, he develops an argument for an alternative, evolutionary-based literary criticism, tentatively called ‘evocriticism’.
The book is organized into two sections, the first dealing with the author’s argument for art, and fiction in particular, having an evolutionary basis, and the second with his application of this argument to two examples of supreme storytelling, Homer’s The Odyssey and Dr Seuss’ Horton Hears a Who!
The general scheme of Boyd’s book is well-organized, proceeding logically through evolution generally, evolution and art, and then evolution and fiction. Unfortunately, I found this beautifully presented, big book frustrating because the arguments themselves are presented poorly, buried in overwriting and repetition, so that it is difficult to get a clear overview of them. The 400 pages could be condensed and clarified considerably to make those arguments stand out, and the reading less exhausting.
The subject is a terrific one: why is it that humans are the only species to have a sustained artistic impulse? Why do we exert so much energy to produce art, and specifically, tell made-up stories? Is art generally just a byproduct (as Stephen Pinker believes) of human development, something pleasurable we like to do but not really of any evolutionary benefit; or has it developed because it is actually of some benefit to our survival, and our dominance as a species?
Boyd appears to want to put art, and storytelling in particular, firmly in place as something vitally important to us as a species, and not just entertaining or academic. He argues fervently for evocriticism against post-modernist theories of human culture and literature (which he refers to as Theory), which do not recognize universals or human nature as such, and which, he appears to argue, take the pleasure out of reading. And he wants to dispel the idea of an evolutionary approach to literature as being reductive, narrowing all down to genes. For example, he states that ‘[e]volution has allowed humans to develop our singular capacity for culture because culture helps us to track changes in the environment more rapidly than genes do’. The two — genes and culture — work together to advance the species.
The author works methodically through explanations of adaptation, intelligence, cooperation (yields better results than selfishness in the long-term) and our intense sociality. Hethen applies evolution to the development of art, giving reasons why he feels biology and culture are both needed to explain it, including art’s universality, persistence, cost, emotional resonance, and development in all of us from an early age.
He argues that art must be important to us as a species or it would have been selected out, and that it evolved as a form of play, specifically cognitive play. As animals play for fun but also for hunting and fighting training, humans make art for their enjoyment, but also for more serious reasons. Art offers benefits by encouraging cooperation and intense sociality that gives a group advantages over another without so much art. It is also self-rewarding, increases status, and develops creativity and imagination.
When Boyd comes to fiction specifically, he discusses theory of mind, the understanding of others in terms of their goals, intentions, desires and beliefs, which develops during early childhood in humans in a particularly elaborate and complex way, and enables us to feel empathy for others. Fiction taps into this through presenting the possible motivations for characters in stories, thus helping us experience situations in our imagination that we might not have in real life.
The second part of the book deals with Boyd’s discussion of the two great works of fiction. He believes that evocriticism offers ‘new directions in which to look’ and ‘deepens our understanding and appreciation of literature’ over and above the current methods of literary analysis and criticism. While his analysis is thorough, too much of it seemed obvious (Homer’s tactics to attract and keep readers, for example) and not particularly interesting or original. In contrast, another book I have reviewed here recently, Affective Mapping: Melancholia and the Politics of Modernism by Jonathan Flatley, shows me how rich, complex and original literary analysis can be, revealing aspects of Henry James, for example, that I had not encountered before.
In scanning the work of other literary Darwinists, such as Joseph Carroll, I see a similar attitude towards other types of literary theory as Boyd’s. Instead of convincing me of the merits of evocriticism, I am irritated by the scathing and dismissive arguments against political, psychoanalytical or semiotic analysis, and see it as short-sighted and limiting.
However, I think Boyd has done a service to literature by arguing for a different way of talking about the books we love. He has argued that we cannot, in fact, live without stories, because they are an adaptation that has enabled our success as a species. We enjoy them, they bring us together and foster cooperation and sharing of values, they encourage attention and empathy. At a recent writers’ festival in my city, I found myself thinking about Boyd’s book. One writer in particular spoke of things that bind us together as human beings: love, family, luck, birth, death. He was speaking of memoir, which I think has a place in Boyd’s theory, as do other forms of storytelling, not only the fictional.
Boyd takes the reader through The Odyssey and Horton Hears a Who!, using the evocritical methods he has so painstakingly developed in a equally painstaking manner. However, I am not convinced that evocriticism is going to provide an adequate method of analyzing stories on its own. I see it as a useful, but perhaps limited, way of asserting the importance of storytelling, a form of criticism to add to our collection of methods of analyses.
© 2009 Sue Bond
Sue Bond has degrees in medicine and literature and a Master of Arts in Creative Writing. She reviews for online and print publications. She lives in Queensland, Australia
Keywords: stories




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