| ||||||||||||||||||||||||
and making munitions. The national budget in war becomes, in
a phrase used by Mr. Ernest Bevin, a "human budget." The second
thesis, as to the fundamental difference between State outlay, and
private outlay, may appear to some a paradox, but is nearer to a
truism. There is no financial limit to spending by the State within
its own borders, as there is a financial limit, set by their resources
and their credit, to spending by private citizens. This does not
mean that the methods of war finance are unimportant; the choice
of methods between taxation and borrowing, or between different
methods of taxation may affect profoundly the distribution of
income between different citizens and may thus affect both their
capacity and their willingness to render service, alike in war and in
the following peace. But, whatever the methods, the money for
outlay up to the limits set by manpower can always be found by
the State in war and is found in practice.
Full Employment In A Free Society
William H Beveridge
を作り、軍需品を作る。アーネスト・ベヴィン氏の言葉を借りれば、戦争中の国家予算は「人的予算」となる。国家支出と民間支出の根本的な違いに関する 2 番目のテーゼは、逆説のように見えるかもしれないが、より真理に近い。国家の支出に財政的な制限はないが、民間人の支出には、その資源と信用によって設定された財政的な制限がある。課税と借入、または異なる課税方法の選択は、異なる市民間の所得分配に重大な影響を及ぼし、その結果、戦争中およびその後の平和時にかかわらず、市民の能力および奉仕の意欲の両方に影響を及ぼす可能性がある。しかし、どのような方法であれ、マンパワーが設定する限界まで支出するための資金は、戦争中に国家が常に見つけることができ、実際にも見つかっている。
自由な社会における完全雇用
ウィリアム・H・ベヴァリッジ
1944
Analysis of War
戦争の経済分析
157. As regards die first head, the experience of war confirms decisively two theses of the economists ; that employment depends on outlay and that outlay by the State which controls money is a very different affair from outlay by private citizens. The first thesis, in its general form, is no more than a truism, which becomes interesting only when we proceed to examine the implications and sources of different kinds of outlay, on consumption and on investment, by the State and by private citizens. The significance of war in relation to employment is that the scope of State outlay is increased immensely and indefinitely and that the State formally and openly gives up any attempt to balance its budget or limit its outlay by considerations of money. The scale of wartime budgets is determined, not by considerations of finance, but by manpower. The State places orders for fighting men and their arms not up to the limit of what it believes that it can afford in money, but up to the limit of what men can be made available to fight and make arms, by squeezing the outlay of private citizens to the irreducible minimum, by contracting manpower in all occupations other than fighting and making munitions. The national budget in war becomes, in a phrase used by Mr. Ernest Bevin, a “human budget.” The second thesis, as to the fundamental difference between State outlay, and private outlay, may appear to some a paradox, but is nearer to a truism. There is no financial limit to spending by the State within its own borders, as there is a financial limit, set by their resources and their credit, to spending by private citizens. This does not mean that the methods of war finance are unimportant ; the choice of methods between taxation and borrowing, or between different methods of taxation may affect profoundly the distribution of income between different citizens and may thus affect both their capacity and their willingness to render service, alike in war and in the following peace. But, whatever the methods, the money for outlay up to the limits set by manpower can always be found by the State in war and is found in practice.
p.118
157. 雇用は支出に依存し、貨幣を管理する国家による支出は私的市民による支出とはまったく異なるものであるということである。最初のテーゼは、一般的な形では、単なる真理論に過ぎず、国家による消費と民間人による投資という異なる種類の支出の意味と出所を検討するときに初めて興味深いものとなる。雇用に関する戦争の意義は、国家の支出範囲が膨大かつ無限に拡大され、国家が金銭的配慮によって予算を均衡させたり支出を制限したりする試みを公式かつ公然と放棄することである。戦時予算の規模は、財政的な考慮ではなく、マンパワーによって決定される。国家は、戦闘員とその武器について、金銭的に余裕があると考える限界までではなく、戦闘と武器製造のために利用できる人間の限界まで、民間人の支出を削り取ることによって、戦闘と軍需品製造以外のすべての職業で労働力を契約することによって、発注する。戦争における国家予算は、アーネスト・ベヴィン氏の言葉を借りれば、「人的予算」となるのである。国家支出と民間支出の根本的な違いに関する第 2 のテーゼは、逆説に見える人もいるかもしれないが、真理に近いものである。国家が自国内で支出することに財政的な制限はないが、民間人が支出することには、その資源と信用によって定められた財政的な制限がある。課税と借入、または異なる課税方法の選択は、異なる市民間の所得分配に重大な影響を及ぼし、その結果、戦争中およびその後の平和時にかかわらず、市民の能力および奉仕の意欲の両方に影響を及ぼす可能性がある。しかし、どのような方法であれ、マンパワーによって設定される限界まで支出するための資金は、戦争中に国家が常に見つけることができ、実際にも見つかっている。
p.118
Beveridge defined full employment as a state where there are slightly more vacant jobs than there are available workers, or not more than 3% of the total workforce. This book discusses how this goal might be achieved, beginning with the thesis that because individual employers are not capable of creating full employment, it must be the responsibility of the state. Beveridge claimed that the upward pressure on wages, due to the increased bargaining strength of labour, would be eased by rising productivity, and kept in check by a system of wage arbitration. The cooperation of workers would be secured by the common interest in the ideal of full employment. Alternative measures for achieving full employment included Keynesian-style fiscal regulation, direct control of manpower, and state control of the means of production. The impetus behind Beveridge's thinking was social justice and the creation of an ideal new society after the war.
The book was written in the context of an economy which would have to transfer from wartime direction to peace time. It was then updated in 1960, following a decade where the average unemployment rate in Britain was in fact nearly 1.5%.
ベヴァリッジは、完全雇用とは、空き仕事が労働者の数よりわずかに多い状態、つまり全労働力の3％以下であると定義しました。本書は、この目標をどのように達成するかについて、「個々の雇用主には完全雇用を実現する能力がないため、国家の責任でなければならない」というテーゼから出発して論じている。ベヴァリッジは、労働者の交渉力の増大による賃金の上昇圧力は、生産性の向上によって緩和され、賃金仲裁制度によって抑制されると主張した。労働者の協力は、完全雇用という理想に対する共通の利益によって確保される。完全雇用を達成するための代替策としては、ケインズ的な財政規制、マンパワーの直接管理、生産手段の国家管理などがあった。ベヴァリッジの思想の原動力は、社会正義と戦後の理想的な新社会の創造であった。
この本は、戦時中の方向から平時へと移行しなければならない経済という文脈で書かれたものである。その後、イギリスの平均失業率が1.5％近くになった10年間を経て、1960年に改訂されました。
http://pinguet.free.fr/beveridge44.pdf
CONTENTS PART I-INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY Relation of the Two Reports The Meaning of Full Employment The Purpose of Employment Preservation of Essential Liberties Diagnosis of Unemployment Analysis of War Economy The Nature of a Full Employment Policy Local and Qualitative Adjustment International Implications The State and the Citizen Plan for Social Security-Policy for Employment PAGE 12 20 21 PART II-UNEMPLOYMENT IN PEACE SECTION 1. FACTS OF UNEMPLOYMENT 40 Unemployment before 1914 40 Unemployment between the Wars 47 The General Level 47 Unemployment by Industries 49 Unemployment Rates and Employment Volumes 53 Unemployment by Localities 60 Duration of Unemployment 65 Age and Unemployment 69 Unemployment Compared before and after the First World War 72 The Old Problems in New Light 75 Fluctuation of Demand 76 Disorganization of the Labour Market 79 Occupational and Local Mobility 85 The New Problem: Deficiency of Demand 88
SECTION 2. THEORIES OF UNEMPLOYMENT 90 Unemployment Diagnosis of 1909 90 The Keynesian Analysis of 1936 93 Significance of Wage Bargaining 97 Offsetting of Saving by Investment or Consumption 99 interplay of Theories and Facts 101 SECTION 3. THE NEW FACE OF UNEMPLOYMENT 105 PART III-FULL EMPLOYMENT IN WAR The Melting Away of Unemployment Economic
Analysis of War
Spectacular Achievements of War Planning 110 114 120 PART IV-A FULL EMPLOYMENT POLICY FOR PEACE SECTION I. THE MEANING AND THREE CONDIDITIONS OF FULL EMPLOYMENT 124 SECTION 2. THE FIRST CONDITION: ADEQUATE TOTAL OUTLAY 131 Meaning and Classes of Outlay 131 State Responsibility for Total of Outlay 134 A New Type of Budget 135 Alternative Routes to Full Employment 142 The New Rules of National :Finance and the Choice of Routes 146 A Post-War Picture 152 The Chosen Route: A Long-Term Programme of Planned Outlay 156 Conlents of the Programme 159 SECTION 3. THE SECOND CONDITION: CONTROLLED LOCATION OF INDUSTRY 166 SECTION 4. THE THIRD CONDITION: ORGANIZED MOBILITY OF LABOIJR 170 SECTION 5. CHANCES OF GOVERNMENT MACHINERY 175
SECTION 6. SOME ALTERNATIVES EXAMINED 180 Stabilization of Total .Investment 180 Expansion of Private Consumption Outlay 184 SECTION 7. A FULL POLICY FOR FULL EMPLOYMENT 187 The Prospects of Success 187 Social Demand Igo PART V-INTERNAL IMPLICATIONS OF FULL EMPLOYMENT Industrial Discipline Determination of Wages Price Policy Monopolies and Trade Associations Full Employment and Private Enterprise Ig4 Ig8 201 203 205 PART VI-INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FULL EMPLOYMENT SE'JTlON I. INTERNAL POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL EFFECTS 208 SECTION 2. BRITAIN'S NEED OF IMPORTS 210 SECTION 3. BILATERALISM AND THE THREE CONDITIONS OF MULTILATERAL TRADE 215 The Meaning of Bilateralism and Multilateralism 215 The First Condition: Full Employment at Home 21g The Second Condition: Balance in International Accounts 225 The Third Condition: Continuity of Economic Policy Abroad 228 Economic Policies and Monetary Plans 228 SECTION 4. THE NEED FOR COMMON ACTION 231 SECTION 5. THE CHOICE FOR BRITAIN 234 Policy in Alternatives 238
PART VII-FULL EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL CONSCIENCE Unemployment and the Individual Some Objections Answered Social Conscience as Driving Force POSTSCRIPT Thc Government's Employment Policy APPENDICES PAGE 242 249 254 259 A. The International Trade Cycle and other Fluctuations 275 B. Statistical and Technical Notes 315 C. The Quantitative Aspects of the Full Employment Problem in Britain, by Nicholas Kaldor 344 D. Explanation of Terms 402
目次
第1部-序論と概要
2つの報告書の関係 完全雇用の意味 雇用の目的 本質的自由の保持 失業の診断 戦争経済の分析 完全雇用政策の本質 局所的・質的調整 国際的影響 国家と市民 社会保障計画-雇用政策 PAGE 12 20 21
第2部-平和における失業
第1章-雇用の実態 1914年以前の失業率 40
戦争間の失業率 47 一般的な水準 47 産業別失業率 49 雇用量 53 地方別失業率 失業率の実態 1914年以前の失業率 40 戦争間の失業率 47 一般的水準 47 産業別失業率 49 失業率と雇用量 53 地方別失業率 60 失業期間 65 年齢と失業率 69 第一次世界大戦前後の失業比較 72 新しい光で見た旧問題 75 需要変動 76 労働市場の無秩序 79 職業と地域の移動 85 新しい問題：需要の欠乏 88
セクション 2. 失業率の理論 1909年の失業診断 90 1936年のケインズ派分析 93 賃金交渉の意義 97 投資または消費による貯蓄の相殺 99 理論と事実の相互作用 101
SECTION 3. 戦争における完全雇用 失業の融解
戦争の経済分析
戦争計画の壮大な成果 110 114 120
第四部 平和のための完全雇用政策
第1節 完全雇用の意味と3つの条件 124
第2節 完全雇用の条件 第一の条件：適切な総支出 131 総支出の意味と種類 131 総支出に対する国家の責任 134 新しいタイプの予算 135 完全雇用への代替ルート 142 国家財政の新しいルールとルートの選択 146 戦後の姿 152 選ばれたルート。長期的な計画的支出プログラム 156 プログラムの関連性 159 第3節. 第二の条件：産業の立地管理 166 第4節. 第3の条件：労働者の組織的な移動 170 第5章 政府機関のチャンス 政府機関の可能性 175
セクション6. 総投資額の安定化 180 民間消費支出の拡大 184
第 7 章 完全雇用のための完全政策 186
完全雇用のための完全な政策 187 成功の見込み 187
社会的需要 Igo 第V部-完全雇用の国際的影響 産業規律 賃金の決定 価格政策 独占と労働組合 完全雇用と私企業 Ig4 Ig8 201 203 205
第V部-完全雇用の国際的影響
SE'JTlON I. 国内政策と国際的影響 208 第2節. 英国の輸入品の必要性 210 Section 3. 二国間主義と多角的貿易の3条件 215 二国間主義と多角的貿易の意味 215
第1条件。自国での完全雇用 21g 第二の条件。国際収支の均衡 225 第三の条件: 経済政策と金融計画 228
第 4 章. 共通の行動の必要性 231
第5節. ブリテンの選択 234
代替案における政策 238
第七部-完全雇用と社会的良心 失業と個人 いくつかの異議申し立て 原動力としての社会的良心 POSTSCRIPT 政府の雇用政策
APPENDICES
A. 国際貿易サイクルとその他の変動 275 B. 統計と技術ノート 315
C. イギリスにおける完全雇用問題の量的側面（ニコラス・カルドー） 344
D. 用語の説明 402
PROLOGUE
PREFACE OF 1944
CONTENTS
PART I-INTRODUCTION AND
SUMMARY
Relation of the Two Reports
The Meaning of Full Employment
The Purpose of Employment
Preservation of Essential Liberties
Diagnosis of Unemployment
Analysis of War Economy
The Nature of a Full Employment Policy
Local and Qualitative Adjustment
International Implications
The State and the Citizen
Plan for Social Security-Policy for Employment
PART II-UNEMPLOYMENT IN PEACE
SECTION 1. FACTS OF UNEMPLOYMENT
Unemployment before 1914
Unemployment between the Wars
The General Level
Unemployment by Industries
Unemployment Rates and Employment Volumes
Unemployment by Localities
Duration of Unemployment
Age and Unemployment
Unemployment Compared before and after the First
World War
The Old Problems in New Light
Fluctuation of Demand
PAGE
Disorganization of the Labour Market
Occupational and Local Mobility
The New Problem: Deficiency of Demand
vi
FULL EMPLOYMENT IN A FREE SOCIETY
SECTION 2. THEORIES OF UNEMPLOYMENT
Unemployment Diagnosis of 1909
The Keynesian Analysis of 1936
Significance of Wage Bargaining
Offsetting of Saving by Investment or Consumption
Interplay of Theories and Facts
SECTION 3. THE NEW FACE OF UNEMPLOYMENT 105
PART III-FULL EMPLOYMENT IN WAR
The Melting Away of Unemployment
Economic Analysis of War
Spectacular Achievements of War Planning
SECTION I. THE MEANING AND THREE CONDI-
DITIONS OF FULL EMPLOYMENT
SECTION 2. THE FIRST CONDITION: ADEQUATE
TOTAL OUTLAY
Meaning and Classes of Outlay
State Responsibility for Total of Outlay
A New Type of Budget
Alternative Routes to Full Employment
PART IV-A FULL EMPLOYMENT POLICY
FOR PEACE
The New Rules of National Finance and the Choice of Routes
A Post-War Picture
The Chosen Route: A Long-Term Programme of Planned
Outlay
Contents of the Programme
PAGE
90
SECTION 3. THE SECOND CONDITION: CON-
TROLLED LOCATION OF INDUSTRY
SECTION 4. THE THIRD CONDITION:
ORGANIZED MOBILITY OF LABOUR
SECTION 5. CHANGES OF GOVERNMENT
MACHINERY
PAGE
SECTION 6. SOME ALTERNATIVES EXAMINED 180
Stabilization of Total Investment
Expansion of Private Consumption Outlay
CONTENTS
SECTION 7. A FULL POLICY FOR FULL
The Prospects of Success
Social Demand
EMPLOYMENT
Industrial Discipline
Determination of Wages
Price Policy
Monopolies and Trade Associations
Full Employment and Private Enterprise
PART V—INTERNAL IMPLICATIONS OF
FULL EMPLOYMENT'
SECTION I. INTERNAL POLICY AND INTER-
NATIONAL EFFECTS
vii
SECTION 2. BRITAIN'S NEED OF IMPORTS
SECTION 3. BILATERALISM AND THE THREE
CONDITIONS OF MULTILATERAL TRADE
Policy in Alternatives
PART VI-INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
OF FULL EMPLOYMENT
viii
Unemployment and the Individual
Some Objections Answered
Social Conscience as Driving Force
FULL EMPLOYMENT IN A FREE SOCIETY
PART VII-FULL EMPLOYMENT AND
SOCIAL CONSCIENCE
The Government's Employment Policy
I.
2.
APPENDICES
A. The International Trade Cycle and other Fluctuations
B. Statistical and Technical Notes
POSTSCRIPT
C. The Quantitative Aspects of the Full Employment
Problem in Britain, by Nicholas Kaldor
D. Explanation of Terms
3.
4.
Employment of Males in certain Industries, 1929-37
Employment and Unemployment of Males in certain
Industries in July 1929, 1932 and 1937
5.
Unemployment Rates by Divisions, 1929-37
6. Changes of Industrial and Local Insured Populations,
IO.
LIST OF TABLES
General Unemployment Rate, 1921-38
Change of Employment and Unemployment in certain
Groups of Industries
1927-37
7. Industrial Transference, 1929–38
8. Duration of Unemployment among Applicants for
Benefit or Allowances in Britain
9.
Duration of Unemployment among Applicants at
21st June, 1937-Numbers by Divisions
Duration of Unemployment among Applicants at
21st June, 1937--Proportions by Divisions
11. Percentages of Unemployed Persons Classified as
Wholly Unemployed, Temporarily Stopped and
Casual Workers, 1929-38
12.
Unemployment Rates by Divisions, 1912–14 and 1937
13. Unemployment in certain Towns in 1913–14 and 1937
14. Placing Index of Employment Exchanges, 1932–38
…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Employment_in_a_Free_Society
Full Employment in a Free Society
Full Employment in a Free Society (1944) is a book by William Beveridge, author of the Beveridge Report. It was first published in the UK by Allen & Unwin.
Overview
The book begins with the thesis that because individual employers are not capable of creating full employment, it must be the responsibility of the state. Full employment is defined as a state where there are slightly more vacant jobs than there are available workers, so people who lose jobs can find new ones immediately.
Unemployment should be aimed to be reduced to 3%. Beveridge claimed that the upward pressure on wages, due to the increased bargaining strength of labour, would be eased by rising productivity, and kept in check by a system of wage arbitration. The cooperation of workers would be secured by the common interest in the ideal of full employment.
The book was written in the context of an economy which would have to transfer from wartime direction to peace time. Government direction of labour (under the Essential Works Order) would cease, and workers would have a free choice of occupation.
Beveridge argued that pre-war unemployment, that hit great heights during the 1930s depression, was due to ineffective demand for industrial products, imperfect labour mobility and general labour market disorganisation. Instead, the economy should be planned, so that demand is socialised, and supply is maintained at all times.
To maintain demand, fiscal policy should be utilised. That means the Treasury's budget should gear towards increased spending when demand is otherwise down. The Social Security proposals in his better known Beveridge Report was an integral part of this.
Frictional unemployment could be remedied through the use of planning law and subsidies to draw the location of industry to the door of the labourer. The advantage of that would be fewer costs in housing and social dislocation which results from large movements of labour. Full use of employment exchanges - public employment agencies - could be used to channel mobile labour, such as younger people, where it is needed.
The evidential support for Beveridge's policy comes from the war experience. War solved unemployment by socialising demand.
Reception
The most common criticism was always that the circumstances of the war were special and people were willing to tolerate more in those times than they might have otherwise. Therefore, it could not be said that just because unemployment had disappeared during the war, it would hold in times of peace. Furthermore, soldiers drafted into the war were often in forced idleness when there was no work for them.
Nevertheless, the book was highly influential, for it melding of Keynesian economics and Fabian politics. Years later, Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, quoted in Hayek on Hayek (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), would claim that Beveridge's Full Employment in a Free Society was ghost-written by Nicholas Kaldor. Hayek said of Beveridge, "[H]e wasn't the least interested in economics. He knew no economics whatever."[1]
Contents
- Part I - Introduction and Summary
- Part II - Unemployment in Peace
- Section 1. Facts of Unemployment
- Section 2. Theories of Unemployment
- Section 3. The New Face of Unemployment
- Part III - Full Employment in War
- Part IV - A Full Employment Policy for Peace
- Section I. The Meaning and Three Conditions of Full Employment
- Section 2. The First Condition: Adequate Total Outlay
- Section 3. The Second Condition: Controlled Location of Industry
- Section 4. The Third Condition: Organized Mobility of Labour
"return to the old ways of engaging labour should be definitely made impossible. Industries like dock and harbour service, which by practising casual engagement have been the main generators of chronic under-employment in the past, have been transformed in the war. It may be assumed that the main principle of the transformation will remain in peace, that the men following such occupations will have guaranteed weekly wages, and that this will lead in due course to the organization of regular work as well as of regular wages, with men working for a single employing agency or for groups of employers, in place of taking their chance with single employers at a number of separate taking-on places. It may be hoped that in many other industries the former position in regard to the engagement of men will be transformed by the substitution of weekly for daily or hourly engagements."[2]
- Section 5. Changes of Government Machinery
- Section 6. Some Alternatives Examined
- Section 7. A Full Policy for Full Employment
- Part V - Internal Implications of Full Employment
- Part VI - International Implications of Full Employment
- Section I. Internal Policy and International Effects
- Section 2. Britains's Need of Imports
- Section 3. Bilateralism and the Three Conditions of Multilateral Trade
- Section 4. The Need for Common Action
- Section 5. The Choice for Britain
- Part VII - Full Employment and Social Conscience
- Postscript
- Appendices
- List of Tables
See also
Notes
- Cf. Kresge, Stephan, and Wenar, Leif, Hayek on Hayek, p. 86.
- para 231
External links
- Review of Full Employment in a Free Society on JSTOR
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